Liudmyla Kormych*
Tetiana Krasnopolska**
Anatolii Kormych***
Halyna Ulianova****
Navigating Narratives: Digital Diplomacy and Freedom of Navigation in the Black Sea
Suggested citation:
Kormych, L., Krasnopolska, T., Kormych, A., & Ulianova, H. (2026). Navigating Narratives: Digital Diplomacy and Freedom of Navigation in the Black Sea. Lex Portus, 12(1), 21–35. https://doi.org/10.62821/lp12102
Published online: 21.02.2026
*Professor, Head of Department of Political Theories, National University Odesa Law Academy (Odesa, Ukraine); South Ukrainian Center of Gender Problems (Odesa, Ukraine)
**Associate Professor, National University Odesa Law Academy (Odesa, Ukraine); South Ukrainian Center of Gender Problems (Odesa, Ukraine)
***Associate Professor, National University Odesa Law Academy (Odesa, Ukraine)
****Professor, National University Odesa Law Academy (Odesa, Ukraine)
ABSTRACT
The Black Sea case during the Russo-Ukrainian conflict shows that digital diplomacy is increasingly vital for maintaining freedom of navigation amidst traditional and hybrid conflicts. Although freedom of navigation is firmly rooted in the law of the sea, its practical enforcement increasingly relies on narrative authority, transparency, and quick international cooperation. The article argues that digital diplomacy serves as a supplementary layer to traditional mechanisms for protecting merchant shipping. It does so by shaping legal frameworks, documenting violations, rallying international support, and reinforcing adherence to maritime regimes. Using an interdisciplinary approach that combines maritime law, security studies, and digital communication analysis, the research shows how Ukraine has used digital tools to internationalize maritime security threats, fight disinformation, and legitimize efforts such as humanitarian corridors and alternative shipping routes. The findings suggest that digital diplomacy needs to be integrated into the operations of state maritime agencies and multilateral coordination efforts as a key part of modern maritime security and governance.
Keywords: digital diplomacy, freedom of navigation, Black Sea region, maritime security, strategic communications, international law, Ukraine, hybrid threats, information technologies.
REFERENCES
Aceves, W. J. (1993). Diplomacy at Sea: U.S. Freedom of Navigation Operations in the Black Sea. Naval War College Review, 46(2), 6. https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol46/iss2/6
Androjna, A., et al. (2024). AIS Data Manipulation in the Illicit Global Oil Trade. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 12(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12010006
Bas, T. G. (2025). Globalization vs. Glocalization: Learn Lessons from Two Global Crises, Such as the Russia–Ukraine Conflict and the COVID-19 Pandemic, for the Agro-Food and Agro-Industrial Sector. Agriculture, 15(2), 155. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15020155
Bergman, B. (2023). Tankers falsify AIS tracking positions to hide entry into Russian Black Sea ports. Global Fishing Watch. https://globalfishingwatch.org/data/tankers-falsify-ais-tracking-positions-to-hide-entry-into-russian-black-sea-ports/
Bjola, C., & Fjällhed, A. (2025). Public diplomacy in the crossfire: decoding Ukraine’s ‘Strategic Self’ during wartime. International Affairs, 101(6), 2059–2083. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiaf179
Bjørge, N., & Høiby, M. (2024). Contemporary research on hybrid threats: Status and future avenues. In O. Borch & T. Heier (Eds.), Preparing for Hybrid Threats to Security: Collaborative Preparedness and Response (pp. 13–35). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781032617916-3
Black Sea News. (2025a, November 4). Maritime Exports of Russian Crude Oil and Petroleum Products Through its Black Sea Ports: October 2025 Database.https://www.blackseanews.net/en/read/238817
Black Sea News. (2025b, December 11). Database of Russian Attacks on Black Sea Ports in January-November 2025. https://www.blackseanews.net/en/read/239081
Black Sea Security Forum. (2026). Leading Security Forum in Odesa.https://odesaforum.org/#pll_switcher
Böhm, M., & Niedringhaus, S. (2023, June 15). Strategic Communications: State Responsibility in The Age of Information War. The Defence Horizon Journal. https://tdhj.org/blog/post/strategic-communications-information-war/
Borrell, J. (2023, June 27). Our stakes in digital diplomacy. European Union External Action. https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/our-stakes-digital-diplomacy_en
BRIDGE Black Sea. https://bridgeblacksea.org
Bugajski, D. R. (2024). Chapter 10 Naval Blockade of Ukraine’s Black Sea Ports in the Light of International Law. In A. Lott (Ed.), Maritime Security Law in Hybrid Warfare (pp. 287–311). Brill-Nijhoff. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004707993_012
Bunwaree, P. (2025). Curbing “Dark” Activity at Sea: The Role of the Marine Insurance Industry. European Journal of Risk Regulation, 16(3), 1138–1155. https://doi.org/10.1017/err.2025.15
Cattelan, S., & Sicking, L. (2025). The Coastal Seas in International Law: Contextualising Grotius’s De iure belli ac pacis. Grotiana, 46(1), 43–65. https://doi.org/10.1163/18760759-46010013
Center for Transport Strategies. (2023, May 12). CFTS and Maritime Logistics Launching Black Sea Indicator of Shipping in Azov-Black Sea Basin. https://en.cfts.org.ua/news/cfts_and_maritime_logistics_launching_black_sea_indicator_of_shipping_in_azov_black_sea_basin
Centre for Global Studies Strategy XXI. (2022). Unblocking of Ukrainian ports and freedom of navigation in the Black Sea: Political and diplomatic dimension. https://analytics.intsecurity.org/en/unblocking-of-ukrainian-ports/
Chehtman, A., & Rivera-López, E. (2024). “Inside” and “Outside”: Assessing the Russian Blockade Against Ukraine. In H. Krieger, P. Kalmanovitz, E. Lieblich, & S. Evdokimos Pantazopoulos, S. (Eds.), Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law, 25. T.M.C. Asser Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-619-2_6
Common Maritime Agenda for the Black Sea. (2025, January 21). Ukraine takes over the coordination of the Common Maritime Agenda for the Black Sea for 2025. https://black-sea-maritime-agenda.ec.europa.eu/ukraine-takes-over-coordination-common-maritime-agenda-black-sea-2025
Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits, 1936. RADA Legislation of Ukraine. https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/995_228?lang=en#Text
Crimea Platform. (n.d.). Main Page. https://crimea-platform.org/en/
Embassy of Ukraine in the Kingdom of Norway and Iceland. (2021, February 20). 7 Years of Russia’s Aggression Against Ukraine. Infographics. https://norway.mfa.gov.ua/en/news/7-years-russias-aggression-against-ukraine-infographics
EuroAccess. (n.d.). Interreg Next Black Sea Basin Programme. https://www.euro-access.eu/en/programs/72/Interreg-NEXT-Black-Sea-Basin-Programme
European External Action Service. (2023, June 29). Digital diplomacy. https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/digital-diplomacy_en
European External Action Service. (2024, March). Cyber diplomacy and cyber defence: EU external action. https://www.eeas.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/2024/2024-03-Cyber%20Diplomacy%20and%20cyber%20Defence.pdf
Fink, M. (2022). Naval Blockade and the Russia-Ukraine Conflict. Netherlands International Law Review, 69, 411–437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40802-022-00228-8
Fu, Z., & Sullivan, J. (2026). Confrontation and Cooperation in Chinese Digital Diplomacy. East Asia. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12140-025-09472-0
Gaber, Y. (2024). A New Security Reality: Strategic Approaches for the Wider Black Sea Region. George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies. https://www.marshallcenter.org/en/publications/clock-tower-series/new-security-reality-strategic-approaches-wider-black-sea-region/new-security-reality-strategic-approaches-wider
Gilboa, E. (2024). Public diplomacy from global peace to global conflict. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 20(1), 21–24. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-024-00374-1
Gorovaya, K. (2023, December 4). Vessel blocking at the Ukrainian sea ports. Interlegal. https://interlegal.com.ua/en/vessel-blocking-at-the-ukrainian-sea-ports/
Government Portal. (2026, January 23). Some 100 million tonnes of grain transported via Ukrainian maritime corridor, says Oleksii Kuleba. https://www.kmu.gov.ua/en/news/ukrainskym-morskym-korydorom-perevezeno-100-milioniv-tonn-zerna-oleksii-kuleba
Grain Ukraine. International Grain Ukraine Conference. https://www.grain-ukraine.com/
Hedling, E. (2025). Coping with digitalization in diplomacy: autonomy and discretion at the digital frontlines. European Journal of International Relations. https://doi.org/10.1177/13540661251343006
Holmes, M. (2015). The Future of Digital Diplomacy. In C. Bjola, & M. Holmes (Eds.), Digital Diplomacy: Theory and Practice. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315730844
Interfax-Ukraine. (2024, June 18). Ukraine initiates creation of international platform “Safe Black Sea” – Strategy. https://interfax.com.ua/news/political/1001043.html
Interfax-Ukraine (2026, February 12). Russia damages over 680 port infrastructure facilities since start of full-scale war – Kuleba. https://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/1144163.html
Jarrin, T. M. (2025). Diplomacy and digital age. Science, technology and global digital governance. Peter Lang Verlag. https://doi.org/10.3726/b22286
Kasianenko, K., & Boichak, O. (2024). Canonizing online activism: Memetic iconography in the North Atlantic Fella Organization. Media, War & Conflict, 18(2), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.1177/17506352241279957
Khomenko, I. (2024, September 3). OSINT Reports Uncover Spike in Shadow Fleet Tankers Evading Sanctions on Russian Oil. United24 media. https://united24media.com/latest-news/osint-reports-uncover-spike-in-shadow-fleet-tankers-evading-sanctions-on-russian-oil-2085
Klynge, C., Ekman, M., & Waedegaard, N. J. (2022). Chapter 12 Diplomacy in the Digital Age: Lessons from Denmark’s TechPlomacy Initiative. In C. Lequesne (Ed.), Ministries of Foreign Affairs in the World (pp. 263–272). Brill-Nijhoff. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004505889_013
Kollakowski, T. (2025). War in the Black Sea: The revival of the Jeune École? Journal of Strategic Studies, 48(4), 898–930. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402390.2025.2471067
Kormych, B., Averochkina, T., & Kormych, L. (2024). Black Sea, grain, and two humanitarian corridors: unblocking Ukrainian shipping amid the Russian invasion. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 35(8), 1360–1396. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2024.2384679
Kormych, B., Averochkina, T., & Kormych, L. (2025). Black Sea Grain initiative: bringing lawfare to conventional armed conflict. Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs, 17(1), 140–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/18366503.2024.2316455
Kormych, B., & Malyarenko, T. (2023). From gray zone to conventional warfare: the Russia-Ukraine conflict in the Black Sea. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 34(7), 1235–1270. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2022.2122278
Kraska, J., & Ryou-Ellison, H. (2025). Introduction: Cultural Geography and the Law of the Sea. In J. Kraska, & H. Ryou-Ellison (Eds.), Cultural Influences on the Law of the Sea: History, Legacy, and Future Prospects (pp. 1–16). Oxford Academic. https://doi.org/10.1093/9780198944140.003.0001
Kroodsma, D. (2022). A radar-illuminated ocean reveals dark fleets. Global Fishing Watch. https://globalfishingwatch.org/data/radar-illuminated-ocean/
Kulchytskyi, S. (2022, August 1). Bringing Victory Closer with Analytics. What Think Tanks have been Engaged in Since Full-Scale Invasion. International Renaissance Foundation. https://www.irf.ua/en/ttdi2022start/
Kuznietsov, S. S. (2025). Some aspects of the legal regime of coastal regions and area of waters. Actual Problems of Politics, 75. 306–312. https://doi.org/10.32782/app.v75.2025.42
Long, R. (2025). Navigational Rights and Freedoms: Continued Relevance and Contemporary Challenges. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 40(4), 700–709. https://doi.org/10.1163/15718085-bja10271
Marleku, A. (2025). Public intelligence as a strategic tool: The role of real-time intelligence disclosure in the Ukraine War. Security and Defence Quarterly, 50(2), 50–65. https://doi.org/10.35467/sdq/205566
Marson, M., & Saccone, D. (2023). Fed with import and starved by war: Estimating the consequences of the Russia-Ukraine conflict on cereals trade and global hunger. International Economics and Economic Policy, 20, 413–423. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10368-023-00564-x
Melnyk, O., Kuznichenko, S., & Onishchenko, O. (2024). Impact of AIS Manipulation on Shipping Safety and Strategic Countermeasures. Lex Portus, 10(4), 31–39. https://doi.org/10.62821/lp10403
Melnyk, O., Drozdov, O., & Kuznichenko, S. (2025). Cybersecurity in Maritime Transport: An International Perspective on Regulatory Frameworks and Countermeasures. Lex Portus, 11(1), 7–19. https://doi.org/10.62821/lp11101
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine. (2021, March 26). Strategy of Public Diplomacy of MFA. https://mfa.gov.ua/pro-ministerstvo/strategiyi-mzs
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine. (2021, December 7). Public diplomacy is a tool for building Ukraine’s resilience to hybrid threats. https://mfa.gov.ua/en/news/public-diplomacy-tool-building-ukraines-resilience-hybrid-threats-and-effective-way-promote-positive-image-abroad
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine. (2022, August 8). Black Sea Grain Initiative: The First Vessel with Ukrainian Grain Reached its Destination. https://mfa.gov.ua/en/news/zernova-iniciativa-pershe-sudno-z-ukrayinskoyu-agroprodukciyeyu-pribulo-v-kincevij-punkt-priznachennya
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine. (2023, November 25). Joint Statement of the International Summit “Grain from Ukraine”. https://mfa.gov.ua/en/news/spilna-zayava-mizhnarodnogo-samitu-zerno-z-ukrayini
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine. (2025, August 26). Joint Statement following the Ministerial Meeting between Ukraine and the BENELUX countries. https://mfa.gov.ua/en/news/joint-statement-following-ministerial-meeting-between-ukraine-and-benelux-countries
Mission of the President of Ukraine in the Autonomous Republic of Crimea. (2025, November 19). IV International Conference “Food from Ukraine”. https://ppu.gov.ua/press-center/u-kyievi-vidbulasia-chetverta-mizhnarodna-konferentsiia-food-from-ukraine/
Mkumbukiy, A., et al. (2025). Agrifood systems’ resilience for sustainable food security amid geopolitical tensions: a systematic literature review. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 9, 1546851. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2025.1546851
Munk, T. (2025). Digital Defiance. Memetic Warfare and Civic Resistance. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 31, 501–528. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-025-09613-4
National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine. (2025, July 28). Cyberdiplomacy as an important tool for international cooperation. https://www.rnbo.gov.ua/en/Diialnist/7248.html
Ozerdem, A. (2022, March 1). What the Montreux Convention is, and what it means for the Ukraine war. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/what-the-montreux-convention-is-and-what-it-means-for-the-ukraine-war-178136
Pedrozo, R. (2023). Russia-Ukraine Conflict: The War at Sea. International Law Studies, 100(1), 1, 1–61. https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/ils/vol100/iss1/1/
President of Ukraine. (2022, November 26). Zelenskyy opens first international summit to implement Grain from Ukraine program initiated by Ukraine, designed to help countries suffering from hunger. https://www.president.gov.ua/en/news/volodimir-zelenskij-vidkriv-pershij-mizhnarodnij-samit-shodo-79457
President of Ukraine. (2023, November 25). The humanitarian initiative ‘Grain from Ukraine’ has been extended – Volodymyr Zelenskyy following Grain from Ukraine second summit. https://www.president.gov.ua/en/news/diyu-gumanitarnoyi-iniciativi-zerno-z-ukrayini-prodovzheno-v-87273
President of Ukraine. (2024, November 23). During the Operation of Our Grain from Ukraine Program, We Have Managed to Save 20 Million People from Hunger – Speech by the President at the Third International Grain From Ukraine Conference. https://www.president.gov.ua/en/news/za-chas-roboti-nashoyi-programi-zerno-z-ukrayini-vzhe-20-mil-94633
Reuters. (2025a, March 12). Four killed in Russian strike on grain vessel in Odesa port, Ukraine says. https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/four-killed-russian-strike-grain-vessel-odesa-port-ukraine-says-2025-03-12/
Reuters (2025b, March 12). Ukraine says Russian strike on Odesa port is attack on global food security. www.reuters.com/world/europe/ukraine-says-russian-strike-odesa-port-is-attack-global-food-security-2025-03-12/
Reuters. (2025c, March 26). Black Sea freedom of navigation crucial to global food security, UN says. https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/black-sea-freedom-navigation-crucial-global-food-security-says-un-2025-03-26/
Reuters. (2025d, December 12). Russia attacks two Ukrainian ports, damaging three Turkish-owned vessels. https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia-attacks-two-ukrainian-ports-damaging-three-turkish-owned-vessels-2025-12-12/
Rønn, K. V., & Orden, H. (2026). No more secrets? De-monopolizing intelligence. Canadian Foreign Policy Journal, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/11926422.2025.2603703
Sabanadze, N., & Dalay, G. (2025). Russia’s use of conflicts in the Black Sea region. In Understanding Russia’s Black Sea strategy. Chatham House. https://www.chathamhouse.org/2025/07/understanding-russias-black-sea-strategy/02-russias-use-conflicts-black-sea-region/
Sage, E. C. (2023). Shining a light on AIS Blackouts with maritime OSINT. Frontiers in Computer Science, 5, 1185760. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomp.2023.1185760
Scutaru, G., & Pavel, A. (2025). Black Sea Region Security Assessment. In G. Scutaru, & M. Margvelashvili (Eds.), Defending Maritime Assets. CEFP 2007. NATO Science for Peace and Security Series C: Environmental Security (pp. 29–38). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-2300-6_3
Segell, G. (2023). Maritime passage, the Montreux Convention (1936) and the conflict between Russia and Ukraine. International Journal of Maritime History, 35(4), 643–658. https://doi.org/10.1177/08438714231205086
Shipping Administration of Ukraine. (2025, August 18). Two Years of the Ukrainian Maritime Corridor Operation. https://marad.gov.ua/en/news/two-years-ukrainian-maritime-corridor-operation
Spravdi. (2025, November 10). Kremlin Ramps Up Its Disinformation Campaign On The “Shadow Tanker” Fleet. https://spravdi.org/en/kremlin-ramps-up-its-disinformation-campaign-on-the-shadow-tanker-fleet/
Sullivan, J., Struve, B., & Wang, W. (2026). Strategic profiles and tactical shifts: Rethinking China’s digital diplomacy. The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 28(1), 259–276. https://doi.org/10.1177/13691481251341686
Thapar, A., & Thapar, A. (2026). Narrative Diplomacy and Strategic Communication. In A. Turan, & H. Ucuzal (Eds.), Diplomacy in the Age of Artificial Intelligence (pp. 73–102). IGI Global Scientific Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3373-4937-4.ch004
Ukrainska Pravda. (2025, December 2). Ukraine denies role in attack on Russian tanker off Türkiye – foreign ministry. www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2025/12/02/8010008/
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/38990/files/A_CONF-62_122-EN.pdf
Ventura, S. (2025). War and Its Imagery: The Visual Narrative of the Ukrainian State’s Instagram Account Ukraine.Ua as a Tool of Digital Public Diplomacy. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 19(3), 379–403. https://doi.org/10.1080/1553118X.2024.2395407
War-Sanctions. (n.d.). Aircraft and Marine VESSELS Airports and Ports Involved in the Transportation of Weapons, Stolen Ukrainian Products and in the Circumvention of Sanctions. https://war-sanctions.gur.gov.ua/en/transport/ships
World Economic Forum. (2023). Global Risks Report. https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Global_Risks_Report_2023.pdf
Yanovska, V., Król, M., & Pittman, R. (2025). The logistics of grain exports from wartime Ukraine: What are the highest priority areas to Address? Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 30, 101363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2025.101363
Yusuf, A., et al. (2025). Identifying research gaps for cross-border cybersecurity conflict resolution tools: A systematic literature review on cyber diplomacy. Multidisciplinary Reviews, 9(6), 2026289. https://doi.org/10.31893/multirev.2026289
